SECULAR ROOTS OF RELIGIOUS RAGE: SHAPING RELIGIOUS IDENTITY IN THE MIDDLE EAST
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.54561/prj0302177bKeywords:
religion, Islam, identity, foreign policy, HuntingtonAbstract
In historic cases of religious conflict, religion was not necessarily the original source of the conflict, but was eventually established as the focal point around which individuals defined their identity. Although the differences between the two groups may have been numerous (political, economic, cultural, etc.), religion provided the easiest and most prominently accessible tool for mass mobilization and identity differentiation. Once this shift occurs, the religious identities become so salient that all future interactions tend to be defined along religious lines, which in turn lends itself to intractability. This paper draws parallels between previous intractable religious conflicts and the current developing conflict between the United States and the Islamic world. Although the United States has made a concerted effort to declare a war on “terror” and not Islam, the perceived threat associated with current U.S. foreign policy behavior is encouraging the redefinition of Middle Eastern identity in Islamic terms and creating the possibility of intractable religious conflict on a global scale. Consequently, while many within the region may not have initially seen this conflict along religious lines, Islam has provided the most prominent and convenient form for articulating their frustrations.
References
Ajami, Fouad. “The Summoning.” Foreign Affairs (1993).
Anti-Defamation League. Speech by Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad 2003 [cited August 3 2007].
Barker, Philip. Religious Nationalism in Modern Europe: If God Be for Us. Edited by William Safran, Routledge Studies in Nationalism and Ethnicity. London: Routledge, 2009.
Bartley, Robert. “The Case for Optimism.” Foreign Affairs (1993).
Bookworm. “We Are Already in a Religious War.” American Thinker, 7/25/06 2006.
Buzan, Barry, Ole Waever, and Jaap de Wilde. Security: A New Framework for Analysis. Boulder: Lynn Rienner Publishers, 1998.
Davis, Winston. “Religion and Development: Weber Adn the East Asian Experience.” In Understanding Political Development, edited by Myron Weiner and Samuel Hungtington. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 1987.
“Enemies within, Enemies Without.” The Economist, 9/20/2001 2001.
Frum, David. “Who Wins in Iraq.” Foreign Policy (2007).
Fukuyama, Francis. “The End of History?” The National Interest (1989).
Geer, Michael. “Religious War.” American Thinker, 7/17/06 2006.
Hastings, Adrian. The Construction of Nationhood: Ethnicity, Religion, and Nationalism.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
Huntington, Samuel. “Clash of Civilizations.” Foreign Affairs, no. Summer (1993).
Inglehart, Ronald, and Pippa Nirris. “The True Clash of Civilizations.” Foreign Policy (2003).
International, Zogby. “Impressions of America.” 2002.
“Impressions of America.” 2004.
Investigation, Federal Bureau of. “Crime in the United States - 2001.” 2002.
Kaplan, Robert. The Ends of the Earth: From Togo to Turkmenistan, from Iran to Cambodia, a Journey to the Frontiers of Anarchy. New York: Vintage Books, 1997.
Kristof, Nicholas. “Bigotry in Islam -- and Here.” New York Times, July 9 2002.
“Bigotry in Islam--and Here.” New York Times, July 9 2002, Op-Ed.
Lawrence, Bruce, ed. Messages to the World: The Statements of Osama Bin Laden. London: Verso, 2005.
Mahbubani, Kishore. “The Dangers of Decadence.” Foreign Affairs (1993).
Pew Research Center, The. “Fewer Say Islam Encourages Violence.” (2005).
“Post-9/11 Attitudes.” 2001.
Relations, Council on American-Islamic. “Anti-Muslim Incidents.” 2002.
Rushdie, Salmon. “Yes, This Is About Islam.” The New York Times, 11/2/2001 2001.
Schick, Ken. “Our Religious Fervor?” St. Petersburg Times, September 8 2002, 1F. Statutes of Kilkenny.
Sullivan, Andrew. “This Is a Religious War.” The New York Times, 10/07/01 2001.
Telhami, Shibley. “A Growing Muslim Identity.” Los Angeles Times, July 11 2004.
“Arab Attitudes Towards Political and Social Issues, Foreign Policy, and the Media.” Zogby International, 2005.
Terror Free Tomorrow. “A Major Change of Public Opinion in the Muslim World: Results from a New Poll in Indonesia.” 2005.
Tessler, Mark. “Arab and Muslim Political Attitudes: Stereotypes and Evidence from Survey Research.” International Studies Perspectives 4 (2003): 175-80.
Tomorrow, Terror Free. “A Dramatic Change of Public Opinion in the Muslim World: Results from a New Poll in Pakistan.” 2005.
“We Are Not the Enemy: Hate Crimes against Arabs, Muslims, and Those Perceived to Be Arab or Muslim after September 11.” Human Rights Watch 14, no. 6 (2002).
Weeks, Albert. “Do Civilizations Hold?” Foreign Affairs (1993).
Whitlock, Craig. “On Tape, Bin Laden Warns of Long War.” Washington Post, April 24, 2006, A01.
www.cnn.com. Hate Crime Reports up in Wake of Terrorist Attacks 2001 [cited September 17 2001].
Islamic Nations Cite U.S. Threat 2003 [cited October 13 2003].
Zogby International. “Impressions of America.” 2004.
Zogby, James. “Impressions of America.” Zogby International, 2002.
“Impressions of America.” Zogby International, 2004.